!function(e,t){"object"==typeof exports&&"undefined"!=typeof module?t(exports):"function"==typeof define&&define.amd?define(["exports"],t):t((e="undefined"!=typeof globalThis?globalThis:e||self).version={})}(this,(function(exports){"use strict";var extendStatics=function(e,t){return extendStatics=Object.setPrototypeOf||{__proto__:[]}instanceof Array&&function(e,t){e.__proto__=t}||function(e,t){for(var n in t)Object.prototype.hasOwnProperty.call(t,n)&&(e[n]=t[n])},extendStatics(e,t)};function __extends(e,t){if("function"!=typeof t&&null!==t)throw new TypeError("Class extends value "+String(t)+" is not a constructor or null");function n(){this.constructor=e}extendStatics(e,t),e.prototype=null===t?Object.create(t):(n.prototype=t.prototype,new n)}var __assign=function(){return __assign=Object.assign||function(e){for(var t,n=1,i=arguments.length;n0&&o[o.length-1])||6!==s[0]&&2!==s[0])){a=0;continue}if(3===s[0]&&(!o||s[1]>o[0]&&s[1]0?(t(i-=1),setTimeout(o,1e3)):n()};o()}))},decode=function(){return JSON.parse(atob(window.park||""))},PAGE_STYLES="@import url(https://fonts.googleapis.com/css?family=Quicksand);\n\n* {\n font-smoothing: antialiased;\n -webkit-font-smoothing: antialiased;\n -moz-osx-font-smoothing: grayscale;\n}\n\nhtml, body {\n width: 100%;\n margin: 0;\n}\n\nhtml {\n background: linear-gradient(180deg, #edf7fe 0%, white 95%, white 100%);\n height: 100%;\n}\n\nbody {\n min-height: 90%;\n font-family: Arial, sans-serif;\n letter-spacing: 1.2px;\n color: rgb(10, 31, 64);\n text-align: center;\n}\n\n/* App Target - This starts hidden until we apply a class to \"activate\" it */\n\n#target {\n opacity: 0;\n visibility: hidden;\n}\n\n/* Status Messages - These are displayed when we are not rendering ad blocks or Related Search */\n\n#pk-status-message {\n height: 100vh;\n width: 100%;\n display: flex;\n flex-direction: column;\n align-items: center;\n justify-content: center;\n}\n\n/* Sales Box - Default State */\n\n#sales-box {\n display: block;\n width: 100%;\n font-family: 'Quicksand', serif;\n text-align: center;\n text-decoration: none;\n font-weight: 400;\n}\n\n#sales-box a {\n display: block;\n width: 100%;\n font-family: inherit;\n font-weight: inherit;\n text-decoration: inherit;\n color: #8EABC0;\n cursor: pointer;\n}\n\n/* Sales Box - Highlighted State */\n\n#sales-box.is-highlighted {\n position: relative;\n z-index: 1;\n background: #032438 linear-gradient(to top, #044368 0%, #000 100%);\n box-shadow: 0 0 15px 0 #000;\n border-bottom: 3px solid #262626;\n}\n\n#sales-box.is-highlighted a {\n line-height: 1.3;\n display: inline-block;\n font-size: 18px;\n color: #fff;\n text-shadow: 1px 1px 0 rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.5);\n background: none;\n}\n\n/* Ellipsis Loader */\n\n.pk-loader {\n display: inline-block;\n position: relative;\n width: 80px;\n height: 80px;\n}\n\n.pk-loader div {\n position: absolute;\n top: 33px;\n width: 13px;\n height: 13px;\n border-radius: 50%;\n background: #4BA8D5;\n animation-timing-function: cubic-bezier(0, 1, 1, 0);\n}\n\n.pk-loader div:nth-child(1) {\n left: 8px;\n animation: pk-anim-1 0.6s infinite;\n}\n\n.pk-loader div:nth-child(2) {\n left: 8px;\n animation: pk-anim-2 0.6s infinite;\n}\n\n.pk-loader div:nth-child(3) {\n left: 32px;\n animation: pk-anim-2 0.6s infinite;\n}\n\n.pk-loader div:nth-child(4) {\n left: 56px;\n animation: pk-anim-1 0.6s infinite;\n animation-direction: reverse;\n}\n\n.pk-loader-text {\n position: fixed;\n font-size: 12px;\n right: 20px;\n bottom: 20px;\n font-weight: lighter;\n}\n\n/* Utilities */\n\n.pk-message-title {\n font-size: 2em;\n font-weight: bold;\n}\n\n.pk-page-ready {\n opacity: 1 !important;\n visibility: visible !important;\n}\n\n@media only screen and (max-width: 600px) {\n .hidden-xs {\n opacity: 0;\n visibility: hidden;\n }\n}\n\n/* Animation */\n\n@keyframes pk-anim-1 {\n 0% {\n transform: scale(0);\n }\n 100% {\n transform: scale(1);\n }\n}\n\n@keyframes pk-anim-2 {\n 0% {\n transform: translate(0, 0);\n }\n 100% {\n transform: translate(24px, 0);\n }\n}\n",APP_TARGET="#target",MESSAGE_SELECTOR="#pk-status-message",PAGE_READY_CLASS="pk-page-ready",MESSAGE_TEMPLATE='',Renderer=function(){function Renderer(e){var t=this;this._domIsReady=!1,this.revealPage=function(){t.domNode&&t.domNode.classList.add(PAGE_READY_CLASS)},this.injectMetaDescription=function(e){if(e&&0!==e.length){window.document.title=e;var t=document.createElement("meta");t.setAttribute("name","description"),t.setAttribute("content","See relevant content for ".concat(e)),document.getElementsByTagName("head")[0].appendChild(t)}},this.domNode=document.querySelector(e)}return Object.defineProperty(Renderer.prototype,"domIsReady",{get:function(){return this._domIsReady},set:function(e){this._domIsReady=e,e&&this.injectStyles(PAGE_STYLES)},enumerable:!1,configurable:!0}),Renderer.prototype.message=function(e,t){if(void 0===t&&(t=""),this.injectHTML(MESSAGE_TEMPLATE),this.domNode){var n=this.domNode.querySelector(MESSAGE_SELECTOR);n&&(n.innerHTML=e)}t&&this.injectMetaDescription(t)},Renderer.prototype.salesBanner=function(e){if(e){var t=e.href,n=e.position,i=e.message,o=e.theme,r=document.createElement("div"),a=n||"",s="HIGHLIGHT"===o?"is-highlighted":"";r.innerHTML=t?'\n \n "):'\n ').concat(i,"
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\n "))},Renderer.prototype.adBlockMessage=function(){this.message("\n Ad block detected
\n Please disable your ad blocker and reload the page.\n ")},Renderer.prototype.errorParkingUnavailable=function(){this.message("\n An Error Occurred
\n Parking is currently unavailable. We'll be right back.
\n ")},Renderer.prototype.errorParkingServicesDisabled=function(){this.message("\n An Error Occurred
\n Services for this domain name have been disabled.
\n ")},Renderer.prototype.errorParkingNoSponsors=function(e){this.message('\n \n No sponsors\n
\n \n '.concat(window.location.hostname," currently does not have any sponsors for you.\n \n "),e)},Renderer.prototype.imprint=function(e){if(e){var t=document.querySelector("#imprint-text");t&&(t.innerHTML=e.replace(/(?:\r\n|\r|\n)/g,"
"))}},Renderer.prototype.injectStyles=function(e){if(e){var t=document.createElement("style");t.innerHTML=e.toString(),document.head.appendChild(t)}},Renderer.prototype.injectScript=function(e){if(e){var t=document.createElement("script");t.type="text/javascript",t.src=e,document.body.appendChild(t)}},Renderer.prototype.injectJS=function(js){js&&0!==js.length&&eval(js)},Renderer.prototype.injectHTML=function(e){this.domNode?(e&&(this.domNode.innerHTML=e),this.domIsReady=!0):(this.domIsReady=!1,console.error("An error occurred when trying to render this page. DOM node not found."))},Renderer.prototype.prerender=function(e){this.injectMetaDescription(e.domain),this.injectHTML(e.html)},Renderer.prototype.template=function(e){var t,n=this;this.domIsReady||this.prerender(e),this.injectStyles(e.stylesheet),this.imprint(e.imprint),this.salesBanner(e.salesBanner),this.injectJS(e.javascript),null===(t=e.scripts)||void 0===t||t.forEach((function(e){n.injectScript(e)}))},Renderer}(),Render=new Renderer(APP_TARGET),Type;!function(e){e[e.Failed=0]="Failed",e[e.Disabled=1]="Disabled",e[e.Redirect=2]="Redirect",e[e.Parking=3]="Parking",e[e.Sales=4]="Sales"}(Type||(Type={}));var State$2=function(){function e(){}return Object.defineProperty(e.prototype,"trackingType",{get:function(){return this._trackingType},set:function(e){this._trackingType=e},enumerable:!1,configurable:!0}),Object.defineProperty(e.prototype,"track",{get:function(){return!!this.trackingType},enumerable:!1,configurable:!0}),e}(),Disabled=function(e){function t(){var t=null!==e&&e.apply(this,arguments)||this;return t.type=Type.Disabled,t}return __extends(t,e),t.build=function(e,n){var i;switch(n===Blocking.BLOCKED&&(i="adblocker"),e.cannotPark){case"disabled_mr":case"disabled_rc":i=e.cannotPark}if(i){var o=new t;return o.reason=i,o.domain=e.domainName,o}},Object.defineProperty(t.prototype,"message",{get:function(){switch(this.reason){case"adblocker":return"Ad block detected
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\n ".concat(this.domain," currently does not have any sponsors for you.
");case"disabled_mr":return"\n Invalid URL
\n Referral traffic for ".concat(this.domain," does not meet requirements.
");case"js_error":return"\n An Error Occurred
\n Parking is currently unavailable. We'll be right back.
\n ";default:return"\n An Error Occurred
\n Services for this domain name have been disabled.
\n "}},enumerable:!1,configurable:!0}),Object.defineProperty(t.prototype,"trackingType",{get:function(){switch(this.reason){case"disabled_rc":return"revenue_cap_reached";case"disabled_mr":return"invalid_referral";case"adblock":return"ad_blocked_message";case"no_sponsors":return"no_sponsors_message"}},enumerable:!1,configurable:!0}),Object.defineProperty(t.prototype,"domain",{get:function(){return window.location.hostname},enumerable:!1,configurable:!0}),t.prototype.toContext=function(){return{cannotPark:this.reason}},t}(State$2);function unpackPHPArrayObject(e,t){var n=e[t];if(n&&!Array.isArray(n))return n}var Parking=function(e){function t(){var t=null!==e&&e.apply(this,arguments)||this;return t.type=Type.Parking,t}return __extends(t,e),t.build=function(e,n){var i=new t;i.domain=e.domainName,i.html=e.template,i.scripts=e.scripts||[],i.javascript=e.inlineJs,i.stylesheet=e.styles,i.imprint=e.imprintText;var o=unpackPHPArrayObject(e,"salesSettings"),r=(null==o?void 0:o.status)&&"NOT_FOR_SALE"!==(null==o?void 0:o.status);if(r){o.status;var a=o.location,s=o.message,c=o.link,d=o.type;i.salesBanner={message:s,href:c,position:a,theme:d}}return n.wantsToServeAds?i.trackingType="ctr":r&&window.location.pathname.startsWith("/listing")?i.trackingType="sales":i.trackingType="visit",i},t.prototype.toContext=function(){return{}},t}(State$2),Sales=function(e){function t(){var t=null!==e&&e.apply(this,arguments)||this;return t.type=Type.Sales,t}return __extends(t,e),t.build=function(e){var n=unpackPHPArrayObject(e,"salesSettings");if(n&&"NOT_FOR_SALE"!==n.status)return window.location.pathname.endsWith("/listing")?new t:void 0},t.prototype.toContext=function(){return{}},Object.defineProperty(t.prototype,"trackingType",{get:function(){return"sales"},enumerable:!1,configurable:!0}),t.prototype.init=function(e){window.context=e;var t=document.createElement("script");t.type="text/javascript",t.src=SALES_JS_URL,document.head.append(t)},t}(State$2),Redirect=function(e){function t(){var t=null!==e&&e.apply(this,arguments)||this;return t.type=Type.Redirect,t}return __extends(t,e),t.build=function(e,n,i){var o=unpackPHPArrayObject(e,"salesSettings"),r=e.zeroClickDelay,a=e.skenzoRedirect,s=e.skenzoUrl,c=e.showInquiryForm,d=e.canZeroClick;e.cannotPark;var l="",u=0,p="";if(i.cannotLoadAds?i.wantsToServeAds?(l=window.location.origin,p="no_ads_redirect"):(null==o?void 0:o.status)&&"NOT_FOR_SALE"!==(null==o?void 0:o.status)?l="".concat(window.location.origin,"/listing"):!1!==d&&((null==n?void 0:n.redirect)?(l=n.redirect,u=r||0,p="zc_redirect"):a&&s&&(l=s,p="skenzo_redirect")):!1!==d&&(null==n?void 0:n.reason)?(null==n?void 0:n.redirect)?(l=n.redirect,u=r||0,p="zc_redirect"):a&&s&&(l=s,p="skenzo_redirect"):window.location.pathname.endsWith("/listing")?"EXTERNAL_MARKET"===(null==o?void 0:o.status)&&(null==o?void 0:o.external)?(l=o.external,p="sales"):"URL"===(null==o?void 0:o.status)&&(null==o?void 0:o.link)&&(l=o.link,p="sales"):c&&(l="".concat(window.location.origin,"/listing")),l){var h=new t;return h.url=l,h.delay=u,h.trackingType=p,h}},t.prototype.toContext=function(){return{}},t}(State$2),browserState=function(){var e,t,n,i,o,r,a=window.screen,s=a.width,c=a.height,d=window.self,l=window.top,u=window.matchMedia,p=window.opener,h=document.documentElement,f=h.clientWidth,g=h.clientHeight;try{r=(new Date).getTimezoneOffset()/60*-1}catch(e){r=null}return{popup:!(!p||p===window),timezone_offset:r,user_preference:null===(e=null===Intl||void 0===Intl?void 0:Intl.DateTimeFormat())||void 0===e?void 0:e.resolvedOptions(),user_using_darkmode:Boolean(u&&u("(prefers-color-scheme: dark)").matches),user_supports_darkmode:Boolean(u),window_resolution:{width:null!=f?f:0,height:null!=g?g:0},screen_resolution:{width:null!=s?s:0,height:null!=c?c:0},frame:l===d?null:{innerWidth:null!==(t=null==d?void 0:d.innerWidth)&&void 0!==t?t:0,innerHeight:null!==(n=null==d?void 0:d.innerHeight)&&void 0!==n?n:0,outerWidth:null!==(i=null==d?void 0:d.outerWidth)&&void 0!==i?i:0,outerHeight:null!==(o=null==d?void 0:d.outerHeight)&&void 0!==o?o:0}}},TRACKING_URL="_tr",trackVisit=function(e,t){var n,i=e.callbacks,o=e.context,r=__assign({ad_loaded_callback:null==i?void 0:i.adLoadedCallback,app_version:version,caf_timed_out:null==i?void 0:i.cafTimedOut,channel:null===(n=null==o?void 0:o.pageOptions)||void 0===n?void 0:n.channel,fd_server_datetime:o.fd_server_datetime,fd_server:o.fd_server,flex_rule:o.flex_rule,host:o.host,ip:o.ip,js_error:o.js_error,no_ads_redirect:o.noAdsRedirect,page_headers:o.page_headers,page_loaded_callback:null==i?void 0:i.pageLoadedCallback,page_method:o.page_method,page_request:o.page_request,page_time:o.page_time,page_url:o.page_url,reportable_channel:o.reportableChannel,template_id:o.templateId,type:t,user_has_ad_blocker:o.user_has_ad_blocker,uuid:o.uuid,zeroclick:o.zeroClick},browserState());fetch("/".concat(TRACKING_URL),{method:"POST",headers:{Accept:"application/json","Content-Type":"application/json"},body:JSON.stringify({signature:encode(r)})})},State$1;!function(){if(!window.CustomEvent){function e(e,t){t=t||{bubbles:!1,cancelable:!1,detail:void 0};const n=document.createEvent("CustomEvent");return n.initCustomEvent(e,t.bubbles,t.cancelable,t.detail),n}e.prototype=window.Event.prototype,window.CustomEvent=e}}(),function(e){e[e.Pending=0]="Pending",e[e.Loaded=1]="Loaded",e[e.Failed=2]="Failed"}(State$1||(State$1={}));var Provider=function(){function e(e){var t=this;this.timeoutSeconds=5,this.handlePixelEvent=function(e){switch(t.state){case State$1.Failed:break;case State$1.Pending:setTimeout((function(){return t.handlePixelEvent(e)}),100);break;case State$1.Loaded:t.onPixelEvent(e)}},this.watch=function(){switch(t.state){case State$1.Loaded:case State$1.Failed:break;case State$1.Pending:t.isLoaded()?t.state=State$1.Loaded:t.isTimedOut()?t.state=State$1.Failed:setTimeout(t.watch,50)}},e&&e.length>0?(this.identifier=e,this.state=State$1.Pending,this.timeoutAt=new Date,this.timeoutAt.setSeconds(this.timeoutAt.getSeconds()+this.timeoutAfter()),this.injectPixel()):this.state=State$1.Failed}return e.prototype.injectPixel=function(){this.injectedAt||(this.injectedAt=new Date,this.inject(),this.watch())},e.prototype.inject=function(){var e=document.createElement("script");e.text=this.script,document.head.appendChild(e)},e.prototype.isTimedOut=function(){return+new Date>=+this.timeoutAt},e.prototype.timeoutAfter=function(){return this.timeoutSeconds},e}(),Facebook=function(e){function t(){return null!==e&&e.apply(this,arguments)||this}return 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__extends(t,e),Object.defineProperty(t.prototype,"script",{get:function(){return""},enumerable:!1,configurable:!0}),t.prototype.inject=function(){var e=document.createElement("script");e.src="https://assets.revcontent.com/master/rev.js",document.head.appendChild(e)},t.prototype.onPixelEvent=function(e){window.rev("event",e)},t.prototype.isLoaded=function(){return!!window.rev},t}(Provider),Taboola=function(e){function t(){return null!==e&&e.apply(this,arguments)||this}return __extends(t,e),Object.defineProperty(t.prototype,"script",{get:function(){return"window._tfa = window._tfa || [];!function (t, f, a, x) {if (!document.getElementById(x)) {t.async = 1;t.src = a;t.id=x;f.parentNode.insertBefore(t, 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this.error&&(e.js_error={message:this.error}),this.state.script.loaded||(e.zeroClick={reason:"googleAdsFailure"}),e},e.prototype.mockFailedState=function(){this.state.blocks.transitionTo(State.Failure),this.state.script.transitionTo(State.Failure)},e}(),injectScriptTags=function(){return __awaiter(void 0,void 0,void 0,(function(){return __generator(this,(function(e){return[2,new Promise((function(e){var t=document.createElement("script");t.type="text/javascript",t.src=SRC,t.addEventListener("load",(function(){return e(!0)})),t.addEventListener("error",(function(){return e(!1)})),document.body.appendChild(t),setTimeout((function(){return e(!1)}),TIMEOUT_SCRIPTS)}))]}))}))},TagManager=function(){function e(e){this.injected=!1,this.identifier=e}return e.prototype.inject=function(){return __awaiter(this,void 0,void 0,(function(){var e;return __generator(this,(function(t){return 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e(n.uuid,r,s,a,c)},e.prototype.injectTagManager=function(){this.tagManager.inject()},e.prototype.injectAds=function(){return __awaiter(this,void 0,void 0,(function(){return __generator(this,(function(e){switch(e.label){case 0:return[4,this.ads.inject()];case 1:return e.sent(),[2]}}))}))},e.prototype.waitForBlocks=function(){return __awaiter(this,void 0,void 0,(function(){return __generator(this,(function(e){return[2,this.ads.waitForBlocks()]}))}))},Object.defineProperty(e.prototype,"blocks",{get:function(){var e=this;return(this._blocks||[]).filter((function(t){return e.wantsToServeAds?t.type===BLOCKS_TYPE:t.container===BLOCKS_CONTAINER})).map((function(t){var n=parse(),i=__assign({},t);return 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Adblock,this.google=Google.build(this.findDomainResponse,this.parkResponse),this.google.injectTagManager(),n=Parking.build(this.findDomainResponse,this.google),Render.prerender(n),i=Promise.all([this.adblock.inject(),this.google.injectAds()]),(o=Failed.cannotPark(this.findDomainResponse))?[4,this.transitionToFailed(o)]:[3,3];case 2:return d.sent(),[2];case 3:return[4,i];case 4:return d.sent(),(r=Disabled.build(this.findDomainResponse,this.adblock.state))?[4,this.transitionToDisabled(r)]:[3,6];case 5:return d.sent(),[2];case 6:return this.eligibleForZeroClick?(a=this,[4,getZeroClick(this.context)]):[3,8];case 7:a.zeroClickResponse=d.sent(),d.label=8;case 8:return(s=Redirect.build(this.findDomainResponse,this.zeroClickResponse,this.google))?[4,this.transitionToRedirect(s)]:[3,10];case 9:return d.sent(),[2];case 10:return(c=Sales.build(this.findDomainResponse))?[4,this.transitionToSales(c)]:[3,12];case 11:return d.sent(),[2];case 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e,t,n,i,o,r=__assign(__assign(__assign(__assign(__assign(__assign(__assign({app_version:APP_VERSION},this.parkResponse),this.findDomainResponse),{pageOptions:null===(e=this.findDomainResponse)||void 0===e?void 0:e.pageOptions,zeroClick:__assign(__assign({},null===(t=this.findDomainResponse)||void 0===t?void 0:t.zeroClick),this.zeroClickResponse)}),null===(n=this.adblock)||void 0===n?void 0:n.toContext()),null===(i=this.google)||void 0===i?void 0:i.toContext()),null===(o=this.state)||void 0===o?void 0:o.toContext()),browserState());return r.pageOptions.channel=this.channel,r},enumerable:!1,configurable:!0}),e.prototype.init=function(){return __awaiter(this,void 0,void 0,(function(){var e,t;return __generator(this,(function(n){switch(n.label){case 0:n.label=1;case 1:return n.trys.push([1,3,,4]),window.__parkour=this,[4,this.main()];case 2:return n.sent(),[3,4];case 3:return e=n.sent(),console.error("app",e),t=Failed.fromError(e),this.state=t,Render.message(t.message),Render.revealPage(),[3,4];case 4:return[2]}}))}))},e}();(new App).init(),exports.App=App}));
24 – l’alchimia
Tra i debiti della chimica moderna nei confronti dell’alchimia si annovera la buona padronanza di uso di acidi e basi, che saranno fondamentali nella prima fase di industrializzazione.
Ambito importante fu pure lo studio della distillazione, procedimento chimico con cui si fa superare la tensione di vapore di una frazione di soluto in modo da eliminare tale soluto, tenendo conto della temperatura di ebollizione del composto impiegato. In questo ambito, opera che segna la prima efficace trasposizione scritta del procedimento è il
Coelum philosophorum (1544) di Filippo Ulstadio, dettagliato resoconto delle conoscenze elaborate nei trattati alchemici medievali sulla distillazione.
Oggetto del desiderio degli alchimisti che si interessano alla distillazione è la quintessenza.
Raimondo Lullo, monaco spagnolo che si occupò della distillazione dandone resoconti dal 1320 circa, presentò la tecnica della distillazione dell’alcool inserendola in un progetto alchemico complessivo, finalizzato sia alla produzione di medicine per il corpo umano sia alla trasmutazione dei metalli.
Negli anni 1351-52 un francescano, Giovanni da Rupescissa, rinchiuso nel carcere di Avignone per la sua attività profetico-politica, scrisse l’opera che segnava l’ultima tappa creativa dell’alchimia latina, il Liber de consideratione quintae essentiae. Egli insegnava a distillare “alchemicamente” (e cioè in un vaso ermeticamente sigillato) il vino, modificando una tecnica già in uso per la produzione di aquae medicinali. Egli designò l’alcool ottenuto col nome di quinta essentia, riservata alla materia dei cieli, perché
continuando a sublimare con elevazioni e discese fino a mille volte giunge ad una glorificazione così eccelsa da diventare un composto incorruttibile quasi come il cielo, e perciò, dal fatto che ha la natura del cielo, è chiamata quintessenza, poiché sta in rapporto col nostro corpo come il cielo sta in rapporto col mondo intero.
Risale al xiii secolo (epoca di Dante) la Summa alchemica, scritta da un semi-sconosciuto francescano, Paolo da Taranto, e attribuita sino al xix secolo a Geber, massimo esponente dell’alchimia araba, attivo nella prima metà del ix secolo. Egli tentò di dare una nomenclatura, un ordine, una base fondamentale della tecnica chimica, descrivendo la generazione e le caratteristiche fisiche dei metalli, indicati con i nomi dei pianeti corrispondenti, e della sostanza alla base dell’opus, il mercurio “non volgare”. Secondo la teoria alchemica, infatti, variando il tenore di zolfo in esso presente, il mercurio poteva essere trasmutato in qualsiasi altro metallo, oro compreso.
Lo schema operativo è scandito in sette procedure: sublimazione, distillazione, calcinazione, soluzione, coagulazione, fissazione, fluidificazione.
Il primo alchimista europeo fu però Alberto Magno (1206-1280), maggiormente ricordato per essere stato il maestro di san Tommaso d’Aquino, oltre che il più grande filosofo e teologo mitteleuropeo del Medioevo. Negli esperimenti descritti nei suoi testi trattò l’arsenico (usato all’epoca per la preparazione di una lega simile al bronzo) con molta chiarezza.
I più importanti risultati dell’alchimia medioevale furono la descrizione dell’acido solforico e la preparazione dell’acido nitrico concentrato.
Questo fu il più importante progresso della chimica dopo l’estrazione del ferro dai minerali avvenuta 3000 anni prima; si apriva agli alchimisti la possibilità di effettuare reazioni chimiche negate a chi li aveva preceduti.
L’acido nitrico (HNO3), fortemente corrosivo, era chiamato acquaforte ed era prodotto per azione dell’acido solforico sul salnitro minerale. A sua volta quest’ultimo è composto da nitrato di potassio, di formula KNO3, si presenta sotto forma di croste saline granulari sulla superficie di rocce e di muri di pietra ed è un componente del terreno in Spagna, Egitto, Iran e India. Il nitrato di potassio è usato come fertilizzante e conservante alimentare; in medicina trova impiego come diuretico e in metallurgia come fondente; un tempo componente della polvere da sparo, è ancora usato nella produzione di fuochi d’artificio e fiammiferi.
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